Created By Shubham Yadav
SUBJECT: BUSINESS STATISTICS
AN INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS STATISTICS
OBJECTIVE: The
aim of the present lesson is to enable the students to understand the
meaning, definition, nature, importance and limitations of
statistics.
Kya karoge padke kiska bhala hua hai, Lol
“A knowledge of statistics is like a knowledge of
foreign
language of algebra; it may prove of use at any time
under
any circumstance”……………………………………...Bowley.
STRUCTURE:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning and Definitions of Statistics
1.3 Types of Data and Data Sources
1.4 Types of Statistics
1.5 Scope of Statistics
1.6 Importance of Statistics in Business
1.7 Limitations of statistics
1.8 Summary
1.9 Self-Test Questions
1.10 Surprise
1.1 INTRODUCTION
For a layman, ‘Statistics’ means numerical
information expressed in quantitative terms. This information may relate
to objects, subjects, activities, phenomena, or regions of space. As a
matter of fact, data have no limits as to their reference, coverage, and
scope. At the macro level, these are data on gross national product and
shares of agriculture, manufacturing, and services in GDP (Gross Domestic
Product).
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At the micro level, individual firms,
howsoever small or large, produce extensive statistics on their
operations. The annual reports of companies contain variety of data on
sales, production, expenditure, inventories, capital employed, and other
activities. These data are often field data, collected by employing
scientific survey techniques. Unless regularly updated, such data are the
product of a one-time effort and have limited use beyond the situation
that may have called for their collection. A student knows statistics
more intimately as a subject of study like economics, mathematics,
chemistry, physics, and others. It is a discipline, which scientifically deals
with data, and is often described as the science of data. In dealing with
statistics as data, statistics has developed appropriate methods of
collecting, presenting, summarizing, and analysing data, and thus
consists of a body of these methods.
1.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF STATISTICS
In the
beginning, it may be noted that the word ‘statistics’ is used rather curiously
in two senses plural and singular. In the plural sense, it refers to a
set of figures or data. In the singular sense, statistics refers to the
whole body of tools that are used to collect data, organise and interpret
them and, finally, to draw conclusions from them. It should be noted that
both the aspects of statistics are important if the quantitative data are
to serve their purpose. If statistics, as a subject, is inadequate and consists
of poor methodology, we could not know the right procedure to extract
from the data the information they contain. Similarly, if our data are
defective or that they are inadequate or inaccurate, we could not reach
the right conclusions even though our subject is well
developed.
A.L. Bowley has defined statistics as: (i) statistics is
the science of counting, (ii) Statistics may rightly be called the
science of averages, and (iii) statistics is the science of measurement
of social organism regarded as a whole in all its mani-
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festations. Boddington defined as:
Statistics is the science of estimates and probabilities. Further, W.I.
King has defined Statistics in a wider context, the science of
Statistics is the method of judging collective, natural or social phenomena
from the results obtained by the analysis or enumeration or collection of
estimates.
Seligman explored that statistics is a science that deals with the
methods of collecting, classifying, presenting, comparing and
interpreting numerical data collected to throw some light on any sphere
of enquiry. Spiegal defines statistics highlighting its role in
decision-making particularly under uncertainty, as follows: statistics is
concerned with scientific method for collecting, organising, summa
rising, presenting and analyzing data as well as drawing valid
conclusions and making reasonable decisions on the basis of such
analysis. According to Prof. Horace Secrist, Statistics is the
aggregate of facts, affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes,
numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable
standards of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner for a
pre-determined purpose, and placed in relation to each other.
From the above definitions, we can highlight
the major characteristics of statistics as follows:
(i) Statistics are the aggregates of facts. It means a single figure is not
statistics. For example, national income of a country for a single year
is not statistics but the same for two or more years is
statistics.
(ii) Statistics are affected by a number of factors. For example, sale of a product depends
on a number of factors such as its price, quality, competition, the
income of the consumers, and so on.
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(iii) Statistics must be reasonably accurate. Wrong figures, if analysed, will lead
to erroneous conclusions. Hence, it is necessary that conclusions must be
based on accurate figures.
(iv) Statistics must be collected in a systematic manner. If data are collected in a haphazard
manner, they will not be reliable and will lead to misleading
conclusions.
(v) Collected in a systematic manner for a pre-determined
purpose (vi) Lastly, Statistics should be placed in
relation to each other. If one collects data unrelated to each other,
then such data will be confusing and will not lead to any logical
conclusions. Data should be comparable over time and over space. 1.3 TYPES OF DATA AND DATA
SOURCES
Statistical data are the basic raw material
of statistics. Data may relate to an activity of our interest, a
phenomenon, or a problem situation under study. They derive as a result
of the process of measuring, counting and/or observing. Statistical data,
therefore, refer to those aspects of a problem situation that can be
measured, quantified, counted, or classified. Any object subject
phenomenon, or activity that generates data through this process is
termed as a variable. In other words, a variable is one that shows a
degree of variability when successive measurements are recorded. In
statistics, data are classified into two broad categories: quantitative data
and qualitative data. This classification is based on the kind of
characteristics that are measured.
Quantitative data are those that can be quantified in definite
units of measurement. These refer to characteristics whose successive
measurements yield quantifiable observations. Depending on the nature of
the variable observed for measurement, quantitative data can be further
categorized as continuous and discrete data.
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Obviously, a variable may be a continuous
variable or a discrete variable. (i) Continuous data represent the
numerical values of a continuous variable. A continuous variable is the
one that can assume any value between any two points on a line segment,
thus representing an interval of values. The values are quite precise and
close to each other, yet distinguishably different. All characteristics
such as weight, length, height, thickness, velocity, temperature, tensile
strength, etc., represent continuous variables. Thus, the data recorded
on these and similar other characteristics are called continuous data. It may
be noted that a continuous variable assumes the finest unit of
measurement. Finest in the sense that it enables measurements to the
maximum degree of precision.
(ii) Discrete data are the values assumed by a discrete
variable. A discrete variable is the one whose outcomes are measured in
fixed numbers. Such data are essentially count data. These are derived
from a process of counting, such as the number of items possessing or not
possessing a certain characteristic. The number of customers visiting a
departmental store everyday, the incoming flights at an airport, and the
defective items in a consignment received for sale, are all examples of
discrete data.
Qualitative data refer to qualitative characteristics of a
subject or an object. A characteristic is qualitative in nature when its
observations are defined and noted in terms of the presence or absence of
a certain attribute in discrete numbers. These data are further classified
as nominal and rank data.
(i) Nominal data are the outcome of classification into two or
more categories of items or units comprising a sample or a population
according to some quality characteristic. Classification of students
according to sex (as males and
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females), of workers according to skill (as
skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled), and of employees according to the
level of education (as matriculates, undergraduates, and post-graduates),
all result into nominal data. Given any such basis of classification, it
is always possible to assign each item to a particular class and make a
summation of items belonging to each class. The count data so obtained
are called nominal data.
(ii) Rank data, on the other hand, are the result of assigning
ranks to specify order in terms of the integers 1,2,3, ..., n. Ranks may
be assigned according to the level of performance in a test. a contest, a
competition, an interview, or a show. The candidates appearing in an
interview, for example, may be assigned ranks in integers ranging from I
to n, depending on their performance in the interview. Ranks so assigned
can be viewed as the continuous values of a variable involving
performance as the quality characteristic.
Data sources could be seen as of two types,
viz., secondary and primary. The two can be defined as under:
(i) Secondary data: They already exist in some form: published or
unpublished - in an identifiable secondary source. They are, generally,
available from published source(s), though not necessarily in the form
actually required.
(ii) Primary data: Those data which do not already exist in any
form, and thus have to be collected for the first time from the primary
source(s). By their very nature, these data require fresh and first-time
collection covering the whole population or a sample drawn from
it.
1.4 TYPES OF STATISTICS
There are two major divisions of statistics
such as descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. The term descriptive
statistics deals with collecting, summarizing, and
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simplifying data, which are otherwise quite
unwieldy and voluminous. It seeks to achieve this in a manner that
meaningful conclusions can be readily drawn from the data. Descriptive
statistics may thus be seen as comprising methods of bringing out and
highlighting the latent characteristics present in a set of numerical data. It
not only facilitates an understanding of the data and systematic
reporting thereof in a manner; and also makes them amenable to further
discussion, analysis, and interpretations.
The first step in any scientific inquiry is
to collect data relevant to the problem in hand. When the inquiry relates
to physical and/or biological sciences, data collection is normally an
integral part of the experiment itself. In fact, the very manner in which
an experiment is designed, determines the kind of data it would require
and/or generate. The problem of identifying the nature and the kind of
the relevant data is thus automatically resolved as soon as the design of
experiment is finalized. It is possible in the case of physical sciences.
In the case of social sciences, where the required data are often
collected through a questionnaire from a number of carefully selected respondents,
the problem is not that simply resolved. For one thing, designing the
questionnaire itself is a critical initial problem. For another, the
number of respondents to be accessed for data collection and the criteria
for selecting them has their own implications and importance for the
quality of results obtained. Further, the data have been collected, these
are assembled, organized, and presented in the form of appropriate tables
to make them readable. Wherever needed, figures, diagrams, charts, and
graphs are also used for better presentation of the data. A useful
tabular and graphic presentation of data will require that the raw data be
properly classified in accordance with the objectives of investigation
and the relational analysis to be carried out. .
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A well thought-out and sharp data
classification facilitates easy description of the hidden data
characteristics by means of a variety of summary measures. These include
measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness, and kurtosis, which constitute
the essential scope of descriptive statistics. These form a large part of
the subject matter of any basic textbook on the subject, and thus they
are being discussed in that order here as well.
Inferential statistics, also known as inductive statistics, goes
beyond describing a given problem situation by means of collecting,
summarizing, and meaningfully presenting the related data. Instead, it
consists of methods that are used for drawing inferences, or making broad
generalizations, about a totality of observations on the basis of
knowledge about a part of that totality. The totality of observations
about which an inference may be drawn, or a generalization made, is
called a population or a universe. The part of totality, which is
observed for data collection and analysis to gain knowledge about the
population, is called a sample.
The desired information about a given
population of our interest; may also be collected even by observing all
the units comprising the population. This total coverage is called
census. Getting the desired value for the population through census is
not always feasible and practical for various reasons. Apart from time and
money considerations making the census operations prohibitive, observing
each individual unit of the population with reference to any data
characteristic may at times involve even destructive testing. In such
cases, obviously, the only recourse available is to employ the partial or
incomplete information gathered through a sample for the purpose. This is
precisely what inferential statistics does. Thus, obtaining a particular
value from the sample information and using it for drawing an inference about
the entire population underlies the subject matter of inferential
statistics. Consider a
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situation in which one is required to know
the average body weight of all the college students in a given
cosmopolitan city during a certain year. A quick and easy way to do this
is to record the weight of only 500 students, from out of a total strength of,
say, 10000, or an unknown total strength, take the average, and use this
average based on incomplete weight data to represent the average body
weight of all the college students. In a different situation, one may
have to repeat this exercise for some future year and use the quick
estimate of average body weight for a comparison. This may be needed, for
example, to decide whether the weight of the college students has
undergone a significant change over the years compared.
Inferential statistics helps to evaluate the
risks involved in reaching inferences or generalizations about an unknown
population on the basis of sample information. for example, an inspection
of a sample of five battery cells drawn from a given lot may reveal that
all the five cells are in perfectly good condition. This information may
be used to conclude that the entire lot is good enough to buy or
not.
Since this inference is based on the
examination of a sample of limited number of cells, it is equally likely
that all the cells in the lot are not in order. It is also possible that
all the items that may be included in the sample are unsatisfactory. This may
be used to conclude that the entire lot is of unsatisfactory quality,
whereas the fact may indeed be otherwise. It may, thus, be noticed that
there is always a risk of an inference about a population being incorrect
when based on the knowledge of a limited sample. The rescue in such
situations lies in evaluating such risks. For this, statistics provides
the necessary methods. These centres on quantifying in probabilistic term the
chances of decisions taken on the basis of sample information being
incorrect. This requires an understanding of the what, why, and how of
probability and probability distributions to equip ourselves with methods
of drawing statistical inferences and estimating the
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degree of reliability of these inferences.
1.5 SCOPE OF STATISTICS
Apart from the methods comprising the scope
of descriptive and inferential branches of statistics, statistics also
consists of methods of dealing with a few other issues of specific
nature. Since these methods are essentially descriptive in nature, they
have been discussed here as part of the descriptive statistics. These are
mainly concerned with the following:
(i) It often becomes necessary to examine how two paired data
sets are related. For example, we may have data on the sales of a product
and the expenditure incurred on its advertisement for a specified number
of years. Given that sales and advertisement expenditure are related to
each other, it is useful to examine the nature of relationship between
the two and quantify the degree of that relationship. As this requires
use of appropriate statistical methods, these falls under the purview of
what we call regression and correlation analysis.
(ii) Situations occur quite often when we require averaging
(or totalling) of data on prices and/or quantities expressed in different
units of measurement. For example, price of cloth may be quoted per meter
of length and that of wheat per kilogram of weight. Since ordinary
methods of totalling and averaging do not apply to such price/quantity
data, special techniques needed for the purpose are developed under index
numbers.
(iii) Many a time, it becomes necessary to examine the past
performance of an activity with a view to determining its future
behaviour. For example, when engaged in the production of a commodity,
monthly product sales are an important measure of evaluating performance.
This requires compilation and analysis of relevant sales data over time.
The more complex the activity, the
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more varied the data requirements. For profit
maximising and future sales planning, forecast of likely sales growth
rate is crucial. This needs careful collection and analysis of past sales
data. All such concerns are taken care of under time series
analysis.
(iv) Obtaining the most likely future estimates on any
aspect(s) relating to a business or economic activity has indeed been
engaging the minds of all concerned. This is particularly important when
it relates to product sales and demand, which serve the necessary basis
of production scheduling and planning. The regression, correlation, and
time series analyses together help develop the basic methodology to do
the needful. Thus, the study of methods and techniques of obtaining the
likely estimates on business/economic variables comprises the scope of
what we do under business forecasting.
Keeping in view the importance of inferential
statistics, the scope of statistics may finally be restated as consisting
of statistical methods which facilitate decision-- making under conditions of
uncertainty. While the term statistical methods is often used to cover
the subject of statistics as a whole, in particular it refers to methods
by which statistical data are analysed, interpreted, and the inferences
drawn for decision making.
Though generic in nature and versatile in
their applications, statistical methods have come to be widely used,
especially in all matters concerning business and economics. These are
also being increasingly used in biology, medicine, agriculture,
psychology, and education. The scope of application of these methods has
started opening and expanding in a number of social science disciplines
as well. Even a political scientist finds them of increasing relevance
for examining the political behaviour and it is, of course, no surprise
to find even historians statistical data, for history is essentially past
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data presented in certain actual format.
1.6 IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS IN BUSINESS
There are three major functions in any
business enterprise in which the statistical methods are useful. These
are as follows:
(i) The planning of operations: This may relate to either special projects or
to the recurring activities of a firm over a specified
period.
(ii) The setting up of standards: This may relate to the size of
employment, volume of sales, fixation of quality norms for the
manufactured product, norms for the daily output, and so
forth.
(iii) The function of control: This involves comparison of actual
production achieved against the norm or target set earlier. In case the
production has fallen short of the target, it gives remedial measures so
that such a deficiency does not occur again.
A worth noting point is that although these
three functions-planning of operations, setting standards, and
control-are separate, but in practice they are very much
interrelated.
Different authors have highlighted the
importance of Statistics in business. For instance, Croxton and Cowden
give numerous uses of Statistics in business such as project planning,
budgetary planning and control, inventory planning and control, quality
control, marketing, production and personnel administration. Within these
also they have specified certain areas where Statistics is very relevant.
Another author, Irwing W. Burr, dealing with the place of statistics in
an industrial organisation, specifies a number of areas where statistics
is extremely useful. These are: customer wants and market research,
development design and specification, purchasing,
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production, inspection, packaging and
shipping, sales and complaints, inventory and maintenance, costs,
management control, industrial engineering and research. Statistical
problems arising in the course of business operations are multitudinous.
As such, one may do no more than highlight some of the more important
ones to emphasis the relevance of statistics to the business world. In
the sphere of production, for example, statistics can be useful in
various ways.
Statistical quality control methods are used
to ensure the production of quality goods. Identifying and rejecting
defective or substandard goods achieve this. The sale targets can be
fixed on the basis of sale forecasts, which are done by using varying
methods of forecasting. Analysis of sales affected against the targets
set earlier would indicate the deficiency in achievement, which may be on
account of several causes: (i) targets were too high and unrealistic (ii)
salesmen's performance has been poor (iii) emergence of increase in competition
(iv) poor quality of company's product, and so on. These factors can be
further investigated.
Another sphere in business where statistical
methods can be used is personnel management. Here, one is concerned with
the fixation of wage rates, incentive norms and performance appraisal of
individual employee. The concept of productivity is very relevant here.
On the basis of measurement of productivity, the productivity bonus is
awarded to the workers. Comparisons of wages and productivity are undertaken
in order to ensure increases in industrial productivity.
Statistical methods could also be used to
ascertain the efficacy of a certain product, say, medicine. For example,
a pharmaceutical company has developed a new medicine in the treatment of
bronchial asthma. Before launching it on commercial basis, it wants to
ascertain the effectiveness of this medicine. It undertakes an
experimentation involving the formation of two comparable groups of
asthma
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patients. One group is given this new
medicine for a specified period and the other one is treated with the
usual medicines. Records are maintained for the two groups for the
specified period. This record is then analysed to ascertain if there is
any significant difference in the recovery of the two groups. If the
difference is really significant statistically, the new medicine is
commercially launched.
1.7 LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS
Statistics has a number of limitations,
pertinent among them are as follows: (i) There are certain
phenomena or concepts where statistics cannot be used. This is because
these phenomena or concepts are not amenable to measurement. For example,
beauty, intelligence, courage cannot be quantified. Statistics has no place
in all such cases where quantification is not possible.
(ii) Statistics reveal the average behaviour, the normal or
the general trend. An application of the 'average' concept if applied to
an individual or a particular situation may lead to a wrong conclusion
and sometimes may be disastrous. For example, one may be misguided when
told that the average depth of a river from one bank to the other is four
feet, when there may be some points in between where its depth is far
more than four feet. On this understanding, one may enter those points
having greater depth, which may be hazardous.
(iii) Since statistics are collected for a particular purpose,
such data may not be relevant or useful in other situations or cases. For
example, secondary data (i.e., data originally collected by someone else)
may not be useful for the other person.
(iv) Statistics are not 100 per cent precise as is Mathematics
or Accountancy. Those who use statistics should be aware of this
limitation.
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(v) In statistical surveys, sampling is generally used as it
is not physically possible to cover all the units or elements comprising
the universe. The results may not be appropriate as far as the universe
is concerned. Moreover, different surveys based on the same size of
sample but different sample units may yield different
results.
(vi) At times, association or relationship between two or more
variables is studied in statistics, but such a relationship does not
indicate cause and effect' relationship. It simply shows the similarity
or dissimilarity in the movement of the two variables. In such cases, it
is the user who has to interpret the results carefully, pointing out the
type of relationship obtained.
(vii) A major limitation of statistics is that it does not
reveal all pertaining to a certain phenomenon. There is some background
information that statistics does not cover. Similarly, there are some
other aspects related to the problem on hand, which are also not covered.
The user of Statistics has to be well informed and should interpret
Statistics keeping in mind all other aspects having relevance on the
given problem.
Apart from the limitations of statistics
mentioned above, there are misuses of it. Many people, knowingly or
unknowingly, use statistical data in wrong manner. Let us see what the
main misuses of statistics are so that the same could be avoided when one
has to use statistical data. The misuse of Statistics may take several forms
some of which are explained below.
(i) Sources of data not given: At times, the source of data is not given. In
the absence of the source, the reader does not know how far the data are
reliable. Further, if he wants to refer to the original source, he is
unable to do so.
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(ii) Defective data: Another misuse is that sometimes one gives
defective data. This may be done knowingly in order to defend one's
position or to prove a particular point. This apart, the definition used
to denote a certain phenomenon may be defective. For example, in case of
data relating to unem
ployed persons, the definition may include
even those who are employed, though partially. The question here is how
far it is justified to include partially employed persons amongst
unemployed ones.
(iii) Unrepresentative sample: In statistics, several times one has to
conduct a survey, which necessitates to choose a sample from the given
population or universe. The sample may turn out to be unrepresentative of
the universe. One may choose a sample just on the basis of convenience.
He may collect the desired information from either his friends or nearby
respondents in his neighbourhood even though such respondents do not
constitute a representative sample.
(iv) Inadequate sample: Earlier, we have seen that a sample that
is unrepresentative of the universe is a major misuse of statistics. This
apart, at times one may conduct a survey based on an extremely inadequate
sample. For example, in a city we may find that there are 1, 00,000
households. When we have to conduct a household survey, we may take a
sample of merely 100 households comprising only 0.1 per cent of the
universe. A survey based on such a small sample may not yield right
information.
(v) Unfair Comparisons: An important misuse of statistics is making
unfair comparisons from the data collected. For instance, one may
construct an index of production choosing the base year where the
production was much less. Then he may compare the subsequent year's
production from this low base.
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Such a comparison will undoubtedly give a
rosy picture of the production though in reality it is not so. Another
source of unfair comparisons could be when one makes absolute comparisons
instead of relative ones. An absolute comparison of two figures, say, of
production or export, may show a good increase, but in relative terms it
may turnout to be very negligible. Another example of unfair comparison
is when the population in two cities is different, but a comparison of
overall death rates and deaths by a particular disease is attempted. Such
a comparison is wrong. Likewise, when data are not properly classified or
when changes in the composition of population in the two years are not
taken into consideration, comparisons of such data would be unfair as
they would lead to misleading conclusions.
(vi) Unwanted conclusions: Another misuse of statistics may be on
account of unwarranted conclusions. This may be as a result of making
false assumptions. For example, while making projections of population in
the next five years, one may assume a lower rate of growth though the
past two years indicate otherwise. Sometimes one may not be sure about
the changes in business environment in the near future. In such a case,
one may use an assumption that may turn out to be wrong. Another source
of unwarranted conclusion may be the use of wrong average. Suppose in a
series there are extreme values, one is too high while the other is too
low, such as 800 and 50. The use of an arithmetic average in such a case
may give a wrong idea. Instead, harmonic mean would be proper in such a
case.
(vii) Confusion of correlation and causation:
In statistics, several times one has to
examine the relationship between two variables. A close relationship between
the two variables may not establish a cause-and-effect-relationship in
the sense that one
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variable is the cause and the other is the
effect. It should be taken as something that measures degree of
association rather than try to find out causal relationship.. 1.8 SUMMARY
In a summarized manner, ‘Statistics’ means
numerical information expressed in quantitative terms. As a matter of
fact, data have no limits as to their reference, coverage, and scope. At
the macro level, these are data on gross national product and shares of
agriculture, manufacturing, and services in GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
At the micro level, individual firms, howsoever small or large, produce
extensive statistics on their operations. The annual reports of companies
contain variety of data on sales, production, expenditure, inventories,
capital employed, and other activities. These data are often field data,
collected by employing scientific survey techniques. Unless regularly
updated, such data are the product of a one-time effort and have limited
use beyond the situation that may have called for their collection. A
student knows statistics more intimately as a subject of study like
economics, mathematics, chemistry, physics, and others. It is a discipline,
which scientifically deals with data, and is often described as the
science of data. In dealing with statistics as data, statistics has
developed appropriate methods of collecting, presenting, summarizing, and
analysing data, and thus consists of a body of these methods.
1.9 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. Define Statistics. Explain its types, and
importance to trade, commerce and business.
2. “Statistics is all-pervading”. Elucidate this
statement.
3. Write a note on the scope and limitations of
Statistics.
4. What are the major limitations of
Statistics? Explain with suitable examples. 5. Distinguish between
descriptive Statistics and inferential Statistics.
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1.10 Rest Karlo Thoda
Khana
kha lo
19
COURSE: BUSINESS STATISTICS
COURSE CODE: MC-106 AUTHOR: SURINDER
KUNDU LESSON: 02 VETTER: PROF. M. S. TURAN
AN OVERVIEW OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
OBJECTIVE: The present lesson imparts understanding of the
calculations and main properties of measures of central tendency,
including mean, mode, median, quartiles, percentiles, etc.
STRUCTURE:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Arithmetic Mean
2.3 Median
2.4 Mode
2.5 Relationships of the Mean, Median and
Mode
2.6 The Best Measure of Central Tendency
2.7 Geometric Mean
2.8 Harmonic Mean
2.9 Quadratic Mean
2.10 Summary
2.11 Self-Test Questions
2.12 Surprise
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The description of statistical data may be
quite elaborate or quite brief depending on two factors: the nature of
data and the purpose for which the same data have been collected. While
describing data statistically or verbally, one must ensure that the
description is neither too brief nor too lengthy. The measures of central
tendency enable us to compare two or more distributions pertaining to the
same time period or within the same distribution over time. For example,
the average consumption of tea in two different territories for the same
period or in a territory for two years, say, 2003 and 2004, can be
attempted by means of an average.
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2.2 ARITHMETIC MEAN
Adding all the observations and dividing the
sum by the number of observations results the arithmetic mean. Suppose we
have the following observations: 10, 15,30, 7, 42, 79 and 83
These are seven observations. Symbolically,
the arithmetic mean, also called simply mean is
x = ∑x/n, where x is simple mean.
10 +15 + 30 + 7 + 42 + 79 + 83
= 7
= 7266 =
38
It may be noted that the Greek letter ΞΌ is used to denote the mean of the
population and n to denote the total number of observations in a
population. Thus the population mean ΞΌ = ∑x/n. The formula given above is the basic formula that forms
the definition of arithmetic mean and is used in case of ungrouped data
where weights are not involved.
2.2.1 UNGROUPED DATA-WEIGHTED AVERAGE
In case of ungrouped data where weights are
involved, our approach for calculating arithmetic mean will be different
from the one used earlier.
Example 2.1: Suppose a student has secured the following
marks in three tests: Mid-term test 30
Laboratory 25
Final 20
30 25 20 = + +
The simple arithmetic mean will be 25
3
21
However, this will be wrong if the three
tests carry different weights on the basis of their relative importance.
Assuming that the weights assigned to the three tests are: Mid-term test
2 points
Laboratory 3 points
Final 5 points
Solution: On the basis of this information, we can now calculate a
weighted mean as shown below:
Table 2.1: Calculation of a Weighted Mean
Type of Test Relative Weight (w) Marks (x)
(wx) Mid-term 2 30 60 Laboratory 3 25 75 Final 5 20 100
Total ∑ w = 10 235
+ + = ∑∑ =
wx
w x w x w x 1 1 2 2 3 3
x+ +
w
w w w
1 2 3
60 75 100 = + +
+ + marks
=
23.5
2 3 5
It will be seen that weighted mean gives a
more realistic picture than the simple or unweighted mean.
Example 2.2: An investor is fond of investing in equity
shares. During a period of falling prices in the stock exchange, a stock
is sold at Rs 120 per share on one day, Rs 105 on the next and Rs 90 on
the third day. The investor has purchased 50 shares on the first day, 80
shares on the second day and 100 shares on the third' day. What average
price per share did the investor pay?
22
Solution:
Table 2.2: Calculation of Weighted Average
Price
Day Price per Share (Rs) (x) No of Shares
Purchased (w) Amount Paid (wx) 1 120 50 6000 2 105 80 8400 3
90 100 9000 Total - 230 23,400
+ +
w x w x w x
∑ = + +
Weighted average = wwx 1 1 2 2 3 3
w w w 1 2
3
∑
+ + marks
6000 8400 9000 = + +
=
101.7
50 80 100
Therefore, the investor paid an average price of Rs 101.7
per share.
It will be seen that if merely prices of the
shares for the three days (regardless of the number of shares purchased)
were taken into consideration, then the average price would
be
120 105 90 . = + + Rs 3
105
This is an unweighted or simple average and
as it ignores the-quantum of shares purchased, it fails to give a correct
picture. A simple average, it may be noted, is also a weighted average
where weight in each case is the same, that is, only 1. When we use the
term average alone, we always mean that it is an unweighted or simple
average.
2.2.2 GROUPED DATA-ARITHMETIC MEAN
For grouped data, arithmetic mean may be
calculated by applying any of the following methods:
(i) Direct method, (ii) Short-cut method , (iii)
Step-deviation method
23
In the case of direct method, the formula x
= ∑fm/n is used. Here m is mid-point of various
classes, f is the frequency of each class and n is the total
number of frequencies. The calculation of arithmetic mean by the direct
method is shown below. Example 2.3: The following table gives the
marks of 58 students in Statistics. Calculate the average marks of this
group.
Marks No. of Students
0-10 4
10-20 8
20-30 11
30-40 15
40-50 12
50-60 6
60-70 2
Total 58
Solution:
Table 2.3: Calculation of Arithmetic Mean by Direct
Method
Marks Mid-point m No. of
Students
f fm
0-10 5 4 20
10-20 15 8 120
20-30 25 11 275
30-40 35 15 525
40-50 45 12 540
50-60 55 6 330
60-70 65 2 130
∑fm =
1940
Where,
= = = ∑58
fm
1940
x 33.45
marks or 33 marks approximately.
n
It may be noted that the mid-point of each
class is taken as a good approximation of the true mean of the class.
This is based on the assumption that the values are distributed fairly
evenly throughout the interval. When large numbers of frequency occur,
this assumption is usually accepted.
24
In the case of short-cut method, the concept
of arbitrary mean is followed. The formula for calculation of the
arithmetic mean by the short-cut method is given below:
x A ∑ = +
fd
n
Where A = arbitrary or assumed mean
f = frequency
d = deviation from the arbitrary or assumed
mean
When the values are extremely large and/or in
fractions, the use of the direct method would be very cumbersome. In such
cases, the short-cut method is preferable. This is because the
calculation work in the short-cut method is considerably reduced
particularly for calculation of the product of values and their respective
frequencies. However, when calculations are not made manually but by a
machine calculator, it may not be necessary to resort to the short-cut
method, as the use of the direct method may not pose any
problem.
As can be seen from the formula used in the
short-cut method, an arbitrary or assumed mean is used. The second term
in the formula (∑fd ⎟ n) is the correction factor for the
difference between the actual mean and the assumed mean. If the assumed mean
turns out to be equal to the actual mean, (∑fd ⎟ n) will be zero. The use of the
short-cut method is based on the principle that the total of deviations
taken from an actual mean is equal to zero. As such, the deviations taken
from any other figure will depend on how the assumed mean is related to
the actual mean. While one may choose any value as assumed mean, it would
be proper to avoid extreme values, that is, too small or too high to
simplify calculations. A value apparently close to the arithmetic mean
should be chosen.
25
For the figures given earlier pertaining to
marks obtained by 58 students, we calculate the average marks by using
the short-cut method.
Example 2.4:
Table 2.4: Calculation of Arithmetic Mean by Short-cut
Method
Marks Mid-point
m f d
fd
0-10 5 4 -30 -120
10-20 15 8 -20 -160
20-30 25 11 -10 -110
30-40 35 15 0 0
40-50 45 12 10 120
50-60 55 6 20 120
60-70 65 2 30 60
∑fd =
-90
It may be noted that we have taken arbitrary
mean as 35 and deviations from midpoints. In other words, the arbitrary
mean has been subtracted from each value of mid-point and the resultant
figure is shown in column d.
fd x A ∑ = +
n
⎟⎠⎞ ⎜⎝⎛ − = +5890 35
= 35 - 1.55 = 33.45 or 33 marks
approximately.
Now we take up the calculation of arithmetic
mean for the same set of data using the step-deviation method. This is
shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Calculation of Arithmetic Mean by
Step-deviation Method
Marks Mid-point f d d’= d/10 Fd’
0-10 5 4 -30 -3 -12
10-20 15 8 -20 -2 -16
20-30 25 11 -10 -1 -11
30-40 35 15 0 0 0
40-50 45 12 10 1 12
50-60 55 6 20 2 12
60-70 65 2 30 3 6
∑fd’
=-9
26
x = A+ ⋅ ∑ '
fd
C
n
9 10 35 =
33.45 or 33 marks approximately.
⎟⎠⎞ ⎜⎝⎛ − ⋅ =
+58
It will be seen that the answer in each of
the three cases is the same. The step deviation method is the most convenient
on account of simplified calculations. It may also be noted that if we
select a different arbitrary mean and recalculate deviations from that
figure, we would get the same answer.
Now that we have learnt how the arithmetic
mean can be calculated by using different methods, we are in a position
to handle any problem where calculation of the arithmetic mean is
involved.
Example 2.6: The
mean of the following frequency distribution was found to be 1.46.
No. of Accidents No. of Days (frequency)
0 46
1 ?
2 ?
3 25
4 10
5 5
Total 200 days
Calculate the missing frequencies.
Solution:
Here we are given the total number of
frequencies and the arithmetic mean. We have to determine the two
frequencies that are missing. Let us assume that the frequency against 1
accident is x and against 2 accidents is y. If we can establish
two simultaneous equations, then we can easily find the values of X and Y.
(0.46) + (1. x) + (2. y)
+ (3. 25) + (4.l0) + (5.5)
Mean = 200
27
x + 2y +140
1.46 = 200
x + 2y
+ 140 = (200) (1.46)
x + 2y
= 152
x + y=200- {46+25
+ 1O+5}
x + y =
200 - 86
x + y
= 114
Now subtracting equation (ii) from equation (i), we
get
x + 2y
= 152
x + y
= 114
- - -
y = 38
Substituting the value of y = 38 in equation (ii)
above, x + 38 = 114
Therefore, x = 114 - 38 = 76
Hence, the missing frequencies are:
Against accident 1 : 76
Against accident 2 : 38
2.2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARITHMETIC MEAN
Some of the important characteristics of the arithmetic
mean are:
1. The sum of the deviations of the
individual items from the arithmetic mean is always zero. This means I: (x
- x ) = 0, where x is the value of an item and x is
the arithmetic mean. Since the sum of the deviations in the positive
direction is equal to the sum of the deviations in the negative
direction, the arithmetic mean is regarded as a measure of central
tendency.
2. The sum of the squared deviations of the
individual items from the arithmetic mean is always minimum. In other
words, the sum of the squared deviations taken from any value other than
the arithmetic mean will be higher.
28
3. As the arithmetic mean is based on all the
items in a series, a change in the value of any item will lead to a
change in the value of the arithmetic mean. 4. In the case of highly
skewed distribution, the arithmetic mean may get distorted on account of
a few items with extreme values. In such a case, it may cease to be the
representative characteristic of the distribution.
2.3 MEDIAN
Median is defined as the value of the middle
item (or the mean of the values of the two middle items) when the data
are arranged in an ascending or descending order of magnitude. Thus, in
an ungrouped frequency distribution if the n values are arranged
in ascending or descending order of magnitude, the median is the middle value
if n is odd. When n is even, the median is the mean of the
two middle values.
Suppose we have the following series:
15, 19,21,7, 10,33,25,18 and 5
We have to first arrange it in either
ascending or descending order. These figures are arranged in an ascending
order as follows:
5,7,10,15,18,19,21,25,33
Now as the series consists of odd number of
items, to find out the value of the middle item, we use the
formula
n +1
Where 2
n + 1 = 5, that is, the size
Where n is the number of items. In
this case, n is 9, as such 2
of the 5th item is the median. This happens to be
18.
Suppose the series consists of one more items
23. We may, therefore, have to include 23 in the above series at an
appropriate place, that is, between 21 and 25. Thus, the series is now 5,
7, 10, 15, 18, 19, and 21,23,25,33. Applying the above formula, the
29
median is the size of 5.5th item.
Here, we have to take the average of the values of 5th and 6th item. This
means an average of 18 and 19, which gives the median as 18.5. n + 1 itself is not the formula for the median; it
It may be noted that the formula 2
merely indicates the position of the median,
namely, the number of items we have to count until we arrive at the item
whose value is the median. In the case of the even number of items in the
series, we identify the two items whose values have to be averaged to
obtain the median. In the case of a grouped series, the median is
calculated by linear interpolation with the help of the following
formula:
l l − +
M = l1 ( ) 2 1 m c
f
Where M = the median
l1 = the
lower limit of the class in which the median lies
12 = the upper limit of the class in which the median
lies
f = the frequency of the class in which the
median lies
m = the middle item or (n +
1)/2th, where n stands for total number of items
c = the cumulative frequency of the
class preceding the one in which the median lies Example
2.7:
Monthly Wages (Rs) No. of Workers
800-1,000
18
1,000-1,200 25
1,200-1,400 30
1,400-1,600 34
1,600-1,800 26
1,800-2,000 10
Total 143
In order to calculate median in this case, we
have to first provide cumulative frequency to the table. Thus, the table
with the cumulative frequency is written as:
30
Monthly Wages Frequency Cumulative Frequency
800 -1,000 18 18
1,000 -1,200 25 43
1,200 -1,400 30 73
1,400 -1,600 34 107
1,600 -1,800 26 133
1.800 -2,000 10 143
l l − +
M = l1 ( ) 2 1 m
c
f
1 + = n + =
72
143
1
M = 2
2
It means median lies in the class-interval Rs 1,200 -
1,400.
1400 1200 − −
Now, M = 1200 + (72 43) 30
200 =1200 +
(29) 30
= Rs 1393.3
At this stage, let us introduce two other
concepts viz. quartile and decile. To understand these, we should first
know that the median belongs to a general class of statistical
descriptions called fractiles. A fractile is a value below that lays a
given fraction of a set of data. In the case of the median, this fraction
is one-half (1/2). Likewise, a quartile has a fraction one-fourth (1/4).
The three quartiles Q1, Q2 and Q3
are such that 25 percent of the data fall
below Q1, 25 percent fall between Q1 and Q2, 25 percent fall between Q2 and Q3 and 25
percent fall above Q3 It will be seen that Q2 is the median. We can use the above formula
for the calculation of quartiles as well. The only difference will be in
the value of m. Let us calculate both Q1 and Q3 in respect of the table given in
Example 2.7.
l l − −
Q1 = l1 ( ) 2 1 m c
f
31
n + 1 = 4
Here, m will be = 4
143 +1 = 36
1 1000 − − Q = +
1200 1000
(36 18) 25 200 =1000 +
(18) 25 = Rs. 1,144
n + 1 = 4
In the case of Q3, m
will be 3 = 4 1 1600 − − Q = +
1800 1600
(108 107) 26
200 =1600 +
(1) 26
Rs. 1,607.7 approx
3⋅144 =
108
In the same manner, we can calculate deciles
(where the series is divided into 10 parts) and percentiles (where the
series is divided into 100 parts). It may be noted that unlike arithmetic
mean, median is not affected at all by extreme values, as it is a
positional average. As such, median is particularly very useful when a distribution
happens to be skewed. Another point that goes in favour of median is that it
can be computed when a distribution has open-end classes. Yet, another
merit of median is that when a distribution contains qualitative data, it
is the only average that can be used. No other average is suitable in
case of such a distribution. Let us take a couple of examples to
illustrate what has been said in favour of median.
32
Example 2.8:Calculate the most suitable average for the
following data: Size of the Item Below 50 50-100 100-150 150-200
200 and above Frequency 15 20 36 40 10 Solution: Since
the data have two open-end classes-one in the beginning (below 50) and
the other at the end (200 and above), median should be the right choice
as a measure of central tendency.
Table 2.6: Computation of Median
Size of Item Frequency Cumulative Frequency
Below 50 15 15
50-100 20 35
100-150 36 71
150-200 40 111
200 and above 10 121
n + 1 th item
Median is the size of 2
121+1= 61st item
= 2
Now, 61st item lies in the 100-150 class
l l − −
Median = 11 = l1 ( ) 2 1 m c
f
150 100 − −
= 100 + (61 35) 36
= 100 + 36.11 = 136.11 approx.
Example 2.9: The following data give the savings bank
accounts balances of nine sample households selected in a survey. The
figures are in rupees.
745 2,000 1,500 68,000 461 549 3750 1800 4795
(a) Find the mean and the median for these
data; (b) Do these data contain an outlier? If so, exclude this value and
recalculate the mean and median. Which of these summary measures
33
has a greater change when an outlier is
dropped?; (c) Which of these two summary measures is more appropriate for
this series?
Solution:
745 + 2,000 +1,500 + 68,000 + 461+ 549 + 3,750 +1,800 + 4,795
Mean = Rs. 9
Rs 83,600 = Rs
9,289
= 9
n + 1 th item
Median = Size of 2
9 + 1 = 5th item
= 2
Arranging the data in an ascending order, we
find that the median is Rs 1,800. (b) An item of Rs 68,000 is excessively
high. Such a figure is called an 'outlier'. We exclude this figure and
recalculate both the mean and the median.
83,600 − 68,000
Mean = Rs. 8
15,600 = Rs.
1,950
= Rs 8
n + 1 th item
Median = Size of 2
8 1 = + item.
= 4.5th
2
1,500 −1,800 = Rs. 1,650
= Rs. 2
It will be seen that the mean shows a far
greater change than the median when the outlier is dropped from the
calculations.
(c) As far as these data are concerned, the
median will be a more appropriate measure than the mean.
Further, we can determine the median graphically as
follows:
34
Example 2.10: Suppose
we are given the following series:
Class interval 0-10
10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Frequency 6 12
22 37 17 8 5
We are asked to draw both types of ogive from
these data and to determine the median.
Solution:
First of all, we transform the given data
into two cumulative frequency distributions, one based on ‘less than’ and
another on ‘more than’ methods.
Table A
Frequency
Less than 10 6
Less than 20 18
Less than 30 40
Less than 40 77
Less than 50 94
Less than 60 102
Less than 70 107
Table B
Frequency
More than 0 107
More than 10 101
More than 20 89
More than 30 67
More than 40 30
More than 50 13
More than 60 5
It may be noted that the point of
intersection of the two ogives gives the
value of the median. From this point of
intersection A, we draw a straight line to
35
meet the X-axis at M. Thus, from the point of
origin to the point at M gives the value of the median, which comes to
34, approximately. If we calculate the median by applying the formula,
then the answer comes to 33.8, or 34, approximately. It may be pointed
out that even a single ogive can be used to determine the median. As we
have determined the median graphically, so also we can find the values of
quartiles, deciles or percentiles graphically. For example, to determine
we have to take size of {3(n + 1)} /4 = 81st item.
From this point on the Y-axis, we can draw a perpendicular to meet the
'less than' ogive from which another straight line is to be drawn to meet
the X-axis. This point will give us the value of the upper quartile. In
the same manner, other values of Q1 and deciles and percentiles can be
determined.
2.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDIAN
1. Unlike the arithmetic mean, the median can
be computed from open-ended distributions. This is because it is located
in the median class-interval, which would not be an open-ended
class.
2. The median can also be determined
graphically whereas the arithmetic mean cannot be ascertained in this
manner.
3. As it is not influenced by the extreme
values, it is preferred in case of a distribution having extreme
values.
4. In case of the qualitative data where the
items are not counted or measured but are scored or ranked, it is the
most appropriate measure of central tendency. 2.4 MODE
The mode is another measure of central
tendency. It is the value at the point around which the items are most
heavily concentrated. As an example, consider the following series: 8,9,
11, 15, 16, 12, 15,3, 7, 15
36
There are ten observations in the series
wherein the figure 15 occurs maximum number of times three. The mode is
therefore 15. The series given above is a discrete series; as such, the
variable cannot be in fraction. If the series were continuous, we could
say that the mode is approximately 15, without further computation.
In the case of grouped data, mode is
determined by the following formula: − +( ) ( ) 1 0 1 2
f f ⋅ − + −
1 0
Mode= l1 i
f f f f
Where, l1 = the
lower value of the class in which the mode lies fl = the frequency of the class in which the mode
lies
fo = the frequency of the class preceding the modal
class
f2 = the frequency of the class succeeding the modal
class
i = the
class-interval of the modal class
While applying the above formula, we should
ensure that the class-intervals are uniform throughout. If the
class-intervals are not uniform, then they should be made uniform on the
assumption that the frequencies are evenly distributed throughout the
class. In the case of inequal class-intervals, the application of the above
formula will give misleading results.
Example 2.11: Let us
take the following frequency distribution:
Class intervals (1) Frequency (2)
30-40 4
40-50 6
50-60 8
60-70 12
70-80 9
80-90 7
90-100 4
We have to calculate the mode in respect of this
series.
Solution: We can see from Column (2) of the table that the maximum
frequency of 12 lies in the class-interval of 60-70. This suggests that
the mode lies in this class interval. Applying the formula given earlier, we
get:
37
12 - 8⋅
Mode = 60 + 10
+
12 - 8 (12 - 8) (12 - 9)
4⋅
= 60 + 10
+
4 3
= 65.7 approx.
In several cases, just by inspection one can
identify the class-interval in which the mode lies. One should see which
the highest frequency is and then identify to which class-interval this
frequency belongs. Having done this, the formula given for calculating
the mode in a grouped frequency distribution can be applied.
At times, it is not possible to identify by
inspection the class where the mode lies. In such cases, it becomes
necessary to use the method of grouping. This method consists of two parts:
(i) Preparation of a grouping table: A
grouping table has six columns, the first column showing the frequencies
as given in the problem. Column 2 shows frequencies grouped in two's,
starting from the top. Leaving the first frequency, column 3 shows
frequencies grouped in two's. Column 4 shows the frequencies of the first
three items, then second to fourth item and so on. Column 5 leaves the
first frequency and groups the remaining items in three's. Column 6
leaves the first two frequencies and then groups the remaining in
three's. Now, the maximum total in each column is marked and shown either
in a circle or in a bold type.
(ii) Preparation of an analysis table:
After having prepared a grouping table, an analysis table is prepared. On
the left-hand side, provide the first column for column numbers and on
the right-hand side the different possible values of mode. The highest
values marked in the grouping table are shown here by a bar or by simply
entering 1 in the relevant cell corresponding to the values
38
they represent. The last row of this table
will show the number of times a particular value has occurred in the
grouping table. The highest value in the analysis table will indicate the
class-interval in which the mode lies. The procedure of preparing both
the grouping and analysis tables to locate the modal class will be clear
by taking an example.
Example 2.12: The
following table gives some frequency data:
Size of Item Frequency
10-20 10
20-30 18
30-40 25
40-50 26
50-60 17
60-70 4
Solution:
Grouping Table
Size of item 1 2 3 4 5 6
10-20 10
28
20-30 18 53
43
30-40 25 69
51
40-50 26 68
43
50-60 17 47
21
60-70 4
Analysis table
Size of item
Col. No. 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60
1 1
2 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1
5 1 1 1
39
6 1 1 1
Total 1 3 5 5 2
This is a bi-modal series as is evident from
the analysis table, which shows that the two classes 30-40 and 40-50 have
occurred five times each in the grouping. In such a situation, we may
have to determine mode indirectly by applying the following
formula:
Mode = 3 median - 2 mean
Median = Size of (n + l)/2th item,
that is, 101/2 = 50.5th item. This lies in the class 30-40. Applying the
formula for the median, as given earlier, we get
40 - 30 −
= 30 + (50.5 28) 25
= 30 + 9 = 39
Now, arithmetic mean is to be calculated. This is shown
in the following table.
Class- interval Frequency Mid- points d d' = d/10 fd'
10-20 10 15 -20 -2 -20
20-30 18 25 -10 -I -18
30-40 25 35 0 0 0
40-50 26 45 10 1 26
50-60 17 55 20 2 34
60-70 4 65 30 3 12
Total 100 34
Deviation is taken from arbitrary mean = 35
fd⋅ ∑ '
Mean = A + i
n
34⋅
= 35 + 10
100
= 38.4
Mode = 3 median - 2 mean
= (3 x 39) - (2 x 38.4)
= 117 -76.8
40
= 40.2
This formula, Mode = 3 Median-2 Mean, is an
empirical formula only. And it can give only approximate results. As
such, its frequent use should be avoided. However, when mode is ill
defined or the series is bimodal (as is the case in the present example)
it may be used.
2.5 RELATIONSHIPS OF THE MEAN, MEDIAN AND MODE
Having
discussed mean, median and mode, we now turn to the relationship amongst
these three measures of central tendency. We shall discuss the relationship
assuming that there is a unimodal frequency distribution.
(i) When a distribution is symmetrical, the
mean, median and mode are the same, as is shown below in the following
figure.
In case, a distribution is skewed to the right, then mean> median> mode.
Generally, income distribution is skewed to the right where a large
number of families have relatively low income and a small number of
families have extremely high income. In such a case, the mean is pulled
up by the extreme high incomes and the relation among these three
measures is as shown in Fig. Here, we find that mean> median>
mode.
(ii) When a distribution is skewed to
the left, then mode> median>
mean. This is because here mean is
pulled down below the median
by extremely low values. This is
41
shown as in the figure.
(iii) Given the mean and median of a unimodal distribution, we can determine whether it is skewed to the right or left. When mean> median, it is skewed to the right; when median> mean, it is skewed to the left. It may be noted that the median is always in the middle between mean and mode.
2.6 THE BEST MEASURE OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY At
this stage, one may ask as to which of these three measures of central tendency
the best is. There is no simple answer to this question. It is because
these three measures are based upon different concepts. The arithmetic
mean is the sum of the values divided by the total number of observations
in the series. The median is the value of the middle observation that
divides the series into two equal parts. Mode is the value around which
the observations tend to concentrate. As such, the use of a particular
measure will largely depend on the purpose of the study and the nature of the
data; For example, when we are interested in knowing the consumers
preferences for different brands of television sets or different kinds of
advertising, the choice should go in favour of mode. The use of mean and
median would not be proper. However, the median can sometimes be used in
the case of qualitative data when such data can be arranged in an
ascending or descending order. Let us take another example. Suppose we
invite applications for a certain vacancy in our company. A large number
of candidates apply for that post. We are now interested to know as to which
age or age group has the largest concentration of applicants. Here,
obviously the mode will be the most appropriate choice. The arithmetic
mean may not be appropriate as it may
42
be influenced by some extreme values.
However, the mean happens to be the most commonly used measure of central
tendency as will be evident from the discussion in the subsequent
chapters.
2.7 GEOMETRIC MEAN
Apart from the three measures of central
tendency as discussed above, there are two other means that are used
sometimes in business and economics. These are the geometric mean and the
harmonic mean. The geometric mean is more important than the harmonic
mean. We discuss below both these means. First, we take up the geometric
mean. Geometric mean is defined at the nth root of the product of n
observations of a distribution.
Symbolically, GM = .... ..... ... 1 2 n n x x x If we have only two observations, say, 4
and 16 then GM = 4⋅16 = 64 = 8. Similarly, if there are three
observations, then we have to calculate the cube root of the product of
these three observations; and so on. When the number of items is large,
it becomes extremely difficult to multiply the numbers and to calculate
the root. To simplify calculations, logarithms are used.
Example 2.13: If we have to find out the geometric mean of
2, 4 and 8, then we find Log GM = nx ∑ i log
Log2 + Log4 + Log8
= 3
0.3010 + 0.6021+ 0.9031
= 3
1.8062 =
= 0.60206
3
GM = Antilog 0.60206
= 4
43
When the data are given in the form of a
frequency distribution, then the geometric mean can be obtained by the
formula:
+ + +
f . x f . x ... f . x l n n
log log log
Log GM = f f fn
1 2 2
∑
f x .log
+ +
1 2
..........
= f f fn
1 + 2 +
Then, GM = Antilog n
..........
The geometric mean is most suitable in the following
three cases:
1. Averaging rates of change.
2. The compound interest formula.
3. Discounting, capitalization.
Example 2.14: A person has invested Rs 5,000 in the stock
market. At the end of the first year the amount has grown to Rs 6,250; he
has had a 25 percent profit. If at the end of the second year his
principal has grown to Rs 8,750, the rate of increase is 40 percent for
the year. What is the average rate of increase of his investment during
the two years?
Solution:
GM = 1.25⋅1.40 = 1.75. =
1.323
The average rate of increase in the value of
investment is therefore 1.323 - 1 = 0.323, which if multiplied by 100, gives
the rate of increase as 32.3 percent.
Example 2.15: We can also derive a compound
interest formula from the above set of data. This is shown
below:
Solution: Now, 1.25 x 1.40 = 1.75. This can be written as 1.75 = (1
+ 0.323)2. Let P2 = 1.75, P0 = 1, and r = 0.323, then the above equation can be
written as P2 = (1 + r)2 or P2 = P0 (1 + r)2.
44
Where P2 is the value of investment at
the end of the second year, P0 is the initial investment and r is the rate
of increase in the two years. This, in fact, is the familiar compound
interest formula. This can be written in a generalised form as Pn = P0(1 + r)n. In our
case Po is Rs 5,000 and the rate of increase in investment is 32.3
percent. Let us apply this formula to ascertain the value of Pn, that is,
investment at the end of the second year.
Pn = 5,000 (1 + 0.323)2
=
5,000 x 1.75
= Rs 8,750
It may be noted that in the above example, if
the arithmetic mean is used, the resultant 25 + 40percent
figure will be wrong. In this case, the
average rate for the two years is 2 165
x 5,000
per year, which comes to 32.5. Applying this rate, we get
Pn = 100
= Rs 8,250
This is obviously wrong, as the figure should have been
Rs 8,750.
Example 2.16: An economy has grown at 5 percent in the
first year, 6 percent in the second year, 4.5 percent in the third year,
3 percent in the fourth year and 7.5 percent in the fifth year. What is
the average rate of growth of the economy during the five
years?
Solution:
Year Rate of Growth Value at the end of the
Log x ( percent) Year x (in Rs)
1 5 105 2.02119 2 6 106 2.02531 3 4.5 104.5
2.01912 4 3 103 2.01284 5 7.5 107.5 2.03141 ∑ log X = 10.10987
45
⎜⎜⎝⎛∑nlog
x
GM = Antilog ⎟⎟⎠⎞
10.10987
= Antilog ⎟⎠⎞ ⎜⎝⎛5
= Antilog 2.021974
= 105.19
Hence, the average rate of growth during the
five-year period is 105.19 - 100 = 5.19 percent per annum. In case of a
simple arithmetic average, the corresponding rate of growth would have
been 5.2 percent per annum.
2.7.1 DISCOUNTING
The compound interest formula given above was
P
Pn=P0(1+r)n This can be written as P0 = n
n
(1+ )
r
This may be expressed as follows:
If the future income is Pn rupees
and the present rate of interest is 100 r percent, then the
present value of P n rupees will be P0 rupees. For example, if we have a
machine that has a life of 20 years and is expected to yield a net income
of Rs 50,000 per year, and at the end of 20 years it will be obsolete and
cannot be used, then the machine's present value is
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000
+ r+3 (1
)
++2 (1 ) n (1 r)
+ r+.................
20 (1 ) + r
This process of ascertaining the present
value of future income by using the interest rate is known as
discounting.
In conclusion, it may be said that when there
are extreme values in a series, geometric mean should be used as it is
much less affected by such values. The arithmetic mean in such cases will
give misleading results.
46
Before we close our discussion on the
geometric mean, we should be aware of its advantages and
limitations.
2.7.2 ADVANTAGES OF G. M.
1. Geometric mean is based on each and every
observation in the data set. 2. It is rigidly defined.
3. It is more suitable while averaging ratios
and percentages as also in calculating growth rates.
4. As compared to the arithmetic mean, it
gives more weight to small values and less weight to large values. As a
result of this characteristic of the geometric mean, it is generally less
than the arithmetic mean. At times it may be equal to the arithmetic
mean.
5. It is capable of algebraic manipulation.
If the geometric mean has two or more series is known along with their
respective frequencies. Then a combined geometric mean can be calculated
by using the logarithms.
2.7.3 LIMITATIONS OF G.M.
1. As compared to the arithmetic mean,
geometric mean is difficult to understand.
2. Both computation of the geometric mean and
its interpretation are rather difficult.
3. When there is a negative item in a series
or one or more observations have zero value, then the geometric mean
cannot be calculated.
In view of the limitations mentioned above,
the geometric mean is not frequently used.
2.8 HARMONIC MEAN
47
The harmonic mean is defined as the
reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of individual
observations. Symbolically,
ciprocal n = ∑
HM=nx
1/
Re
1/ x1 1/ x2 1/ x3 ... 1/ xn
+ + + +
The calculation of harmonic mean becomes very
tedious when a distribution has a large number of observations. In the
case of grouped data, the harmonic mean is calculated by using the
following formula:
− ⎟⎟⎠⎞
n
HM = Reciprocal of ∑
⎜⎜⎝⎛⋅ f
1
or
ix
i i
1
n
⎜⎜⎝⎛⋅
− ⎟⎟⎠⎞
n
∑
f
1
ix
i i
1
Where n is the total number of
observations.
Here, each reciprocal of the original figure
is weighted by the corresponding frequency (f).
The main advantage of the harmonic
mean is that it is based on all observations in a distribution and is
amenable to further algebraic treatment. When we desire to give greater
weight to smaller observations and less weight to the larger observations, then
the use of harmonic mean will be more suitable. As against these advantages,
there are certain limitations of the harmonic mean. First, it is
difficult to understand as well as difficult to compute. Second, it
cannot be calculated if any of the observations is zero or negative.
Third, it is only a summary figure, which may not be an actual
observation in the distribution.
It is worth noting that the harmonic mean is
always lower than the geometric mean, which is lower than the arithmetic
mean. This is because the harmonic mean assigns
48
lesser importance to higher values. Since the
harmonic mean is based on reciprocals, it becomes clear that as
reciprocals of higher values are lower than those of lower values, it is
a lower average than the arithmetic mean as well as the geometric mean. Example
2.17: Suppose we have three observations 4, 8 and 16. We are required
to calculate the harmonic mean. Reciprocals of 4,8 and 16 are: 41
,81 ,161
respectively
n
Since HM = 1/ x
1/ x 1/ x 1 + 2 + 3
3
= 1/ 4
1/ 8 1/ 16
+ +
3
= 0.25 0.125 0.0625
+ +
= 6.857 approx.
Example 2.18: Consider
the following series:
Class-interval 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10
Frequency 20 40 30 10
Solution:
Let us set up the table as follows:
Class-interval Mid-value Frequency Reciprocal of MV f x
1/x
2-4 3 20 0.3333 6.6660
4-6 5 40 0.2000 8.0000
6-8 7 30 0.1429 4.2870
8-10 9 10 0.1111 1.1111
Total 20.0641
⎜⎜⎝⎛⋅
− ⎟⎟⎠⎞
n
∑ i f
1
= nx
1
i i
100 =
4.984 approx.
= 20.0641
49
Example 2.19: In a small company, two typists are employed.
Typist A types one page in ten minutes while typist B takes twenty
minutes for the same. (i) Both are asked to type 10 pages. What is the
average time taken for typing one page? (ii) Both are asked to type for
one hour. What is the average time taken by them for typing one
page?
Solution: Here Q-(i) is on arithmetic mean while Q-(ii) is on
harmonic mean. (10 10) (20 20)(min )
⋅ + ⋅
(i) M = 10 2( )
utes
⋅
pages
= 15 minutes ⋅
60 (min )
utes
HM = 60 /10
60 / 20( )
+
pages
120 = = +and 20 seconds.
40
= 13min utes
120 60 20
3
Example 2.20: It takes ship A 10 days to cross the Pacific
Ocean; ship B takes 15 days and ship C takes 20 days. (i) What is the
average number of days taken by a ship to cross the Pacific Ocean? (ii)
What is the average number of days taken by a cargo to cross the Pacific
Ocean when the ships are hired for 60 days?
Solution: Here again Q-(i) pertains to simple arithmetic mean while
Q-(ii) is concerned with the harmonic mean.
10 +15 + 20 = 15
days
(i) M = 3
⋅ days
60 3( ) _
(ii) HM = 60 /10
60 /15 60 / 20
+ +
=
180
360 240 180
+ +
60
50
= 13.8 days approx.
2.9 QUADRATIC MEAN
We have seen earlier that the geometric mean
is the antilogarithm of the arithmetic mean of the logarithms, and the
harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the
reciprocals. Likewise, the quadratic mean (Q) is the square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squares. Symbolically,
2
2 2
1 + + ......
+
x x n
2
Q = n
Instead of using original values, the
quadratic mean can be used while averaging deviations when the standard
deviation is to be calculated. This will be used in the next chapter on
dispersion.
2.9.1 Relative Position of Different Means
The relative position of different means will always
be:
Q> x >G>H provided that all the individual observations
in a series are positive and all of them are not the same.
2.9.2 Composite Average or Average of Means
Sometimes, we may have to calculate an
average of several averages. In such cases, we should use the same method
of averaging that was employed in calculating the original averages.
Thus, we should calculate the arithmetic mean of several values of x, the
geometric mean of several values of GM, and the harmonic mean of several
values of HM. It will be wrong if we use some other average in averaging of
means.
2.10 SUMMARY
It is the most important objective of
statistical analysis is to get one single value that describes the characteristics
of the entire mass of cumbersome data. Such a value is finding out, which
is known as central value to serve our purpose.
51
2.11 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS
1. What are the desiderata (requirements) of
a good average? Compare the mean, the median and the mode in the light of
these desiderata? Why averages are called measures of central
tendency?
2. "Every average has its own peculiar
characteristics. It is difficult to say which average is the best."
Explain with examples.
3. What do you understand .by 'Central
Tendency'? Under what conditions is the median more suitable than other
measures of central tendency?
4. The average monthly salary paid to all
employees in a company was Rs 8,000. The average monthly salaries paid to
male and female employees of the company were Rs 10,600 and Rs 7,500
respectively. Find out the percentages of males and females employed by
the company.
5. Calculate the arithmetic mean from the following
data:
Class 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 Frequency
2 4 9 11 12 6 4 2 6. Calculate the mean, median and mode from the
following data: Height in Inches Number of Persons
62-63 2
63-64 6
64-65 14
65-66 16
66-67 8
67-68 3
68-69 1
Total 50
7. A number of particular articles have been
classified according to their weights. After drying for two weeks, the
same articles have again been weighed and similarly classified. It is
known that the median weight in the first weighing
52
was 20.83 gm while in the second weighing it
was 17.35 gm. Some frequencies a and b in the first
weighing and x and y in the second are missing. It is known
that a = 1/3x and b = 1/2 y. Find out the values of
the missing frequencies.
Class Frequencies
First Weighing Second Weighing
0- 5 a z
5-10 b y
10-15 11 40
15-20 52 50
20-25 75 30
25-30 22 28
8 Cities A, Band C are equidistant from each
other. A motorist travels from A to B at 30 km/h; from B to C at 40 km/h
and from C to A at 50 km/h. Determine his average speed for the entire
trip.
9 Calculate the harmonic mean from the following
data:
Class-Interval 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 Frequency 20 40
30 10
10 A vehicle when climbing up a gradient,
consumes petrol @ 8 km per litre. While coming down it runs 12 km per
litre. Find its average consumption for to and fro travel between two
places situated at the two ends of 25 Ian long gradient.
53
2.12 Rest Karlo Thoda
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Group pe baat karlo
This pdf is property of LaywerThink
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COURSE: BUSINESS STATISTICS
DISPERSION AND SKEWNESS
OBJECTIVE: The
objective of the present lesson is to impart the knowledge of measures of
dispersion and skewness and to enable the students to distinguish between
average, dispersion, skewness, moments and kurtosis.
STRUCTURE:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning and Definition of Dispersion
3.3 Significance and Properties of Measuring
Variation
3.4 Measures of Dispersion
3.5 Range
3.6 Interquartile Range or Quartile Deviation
3.7 Mean Deviation
3.8 Standard Deviation
3.9 Lorenz Curve
3.10 Skewness: Meaning and Definitions
3.11 Tests of Skewness
3.12 Measures of Skewness
3.13 Moments
3.14 Kurtosis
3.15 Summary
3.16 Self-Test Questions
3.17 surprise
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we have explained
the measures of central tendency. It may be noted that these measures do
not indicate the extent of dispersion or variability in a distribution.
The dispersion or variability provides us one more step in increasing our
understanding of the pattern of the data. Further, a high degree of uniformity
(i.e. low degree of dispersion) is a desirable quality. If in a business
there is a high degree of variability in the raw material, then it could
not find mass production economical.
55
Suppose an investor is looking for a suitable
equity share for investment. While examining the movement of share
prices, he should avoid those shares that are highly fluctuating-having
sometimes very high prices and at other times going very low. Such
extreme fluctuations mean that there is a high risk in the investment in
shares. The investor should, therefore, prefer those shares where risk is
not so high.
3.2 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF
DISPERSION The
various measures of central value give us one single figure that represents
the entire data. But the average alone cannot adequately describe a set
of observations, unless all the observations are the same. It is
necessary to describe the variability or dispersion of the observations.
In two or more distributions the central value may be the same but still
there can be wide disparities in the formation of distribution. Measures
of dispersion help us in studying this important characteristic of a distribution.
Some important definitions of dispersion are given
below:
1. "Dispersion is the measure of the variation of
the items." -A.L. Bowley 2. "The degree to which numerical data
tend to spread about an average value is called the variation of dispersion
of the data." -Spiegel
3. Dispersion or spread is the degree of the scatter or
variation of the variable about a central value." -Brooks &
Dick 4. "The measurement of the scatterness of the mass of figures
in a series about an
average is called measure of variation or
dispersion." -Simpson & Kajka It is clear from above that
dispersion (also known as scatter, spread or variation) measures the
extent to which the items vary from some central value. Since measures of
dispersion give an average of the differences of various items from an
average, they are also called averages of the second order. An average is
more meaningful when it is examined in the light of dispersion. For
example, if the average wage of the
56
workers of factory A is Rs. 3885 and that of
factory B Rs. 3900, we cannot necessarily conclude that the workers of
factory B are better off because in factory B there may be much greater
dispersion in the distribution of wages. The study of dispersion is of
great significance in practice as could well be appreciated from the
following example:
Series A Series B Series C
100 100 1
100 105 489
100 102 2
100 103 3
100 90 5
Total 500 500 500
x 100
100 100
Since arithmetic mean is the same in all three series, one is likely to conclude that these series are alike in nature. But a close examination shall reveal that distributions differ widely from one another. In series A, (In Box-3.1) each and every item is perfectly represented by the arithmetic mean or in other words none of the items of series A deviates from the
57
arithmetic mean and hence there is no
dispersion. In series B, only one item is perfectly represented by the
arithmetic mean and the other items vary but the variation is very small
as compared to series C. In series C. not a single item is represented by
the arithmetic mean and the items vary widely from one another. In series
C, dispersion is much greater compared to series B. Similarly, we may
have two groups of labourers with the same mean salary and yet their
distributions may differ widely. The mean salary may not be so important
a characteristic as the variation of the items from the mean. To the
student of social affairs the mean income is not so vitally important as
to know how this income is distributed. Are a large number receiving the
mean income or are there a few with enormous incomes and millions with incomes
far below the mean? The three figures given in Box 3.1 represent
frequency distributions with some of the characteristics. The two curves
in diagram (a) represent two distractions with the same mean X ,
but with different dispersions. The two curves in (b) represent two
distributions with the same dispersion but with unequal means X l and X
2, (c) represents two distributions with unequal
dispersion. The measures of central tendency are, therefore insufficient.
They must be supported and supplemented with other measures.
In the present chapter, we shall be
especially concerned with the measures of variability or spread or
dispersion. A measure of variation or dispersion is one that measures the
extent to which there are differences between individual observation and
some central or average value. In measuring variation we shall be interested in
the amount of the variation or its degree but not in the direction. For
example, a measure of 6 inches below the mean has just as much dispersion
as a measure of six inches above the mean.
58
Literally meaning of dispersion is
‘scatteredness’. Average or the measures of central tendency gives us an
idea of the concentration of the observations about the central part of
the distribution. If we know the average alone, we cannot form a complete
idea about the distribution. But with the help of dispersion, we have an
idea about homogeneity or heterogeneity of the distribution.
3.3 SIGNIFICANCE AND PROPERTIES OF
MEASURING VARIATION
Measures
of variation are needed for four basic purposes:
1. Measures of variation point out as to how
far an average is representative of the mass. When dispersion is small,
the average is a typical value in the sense that it closely represents
the individual value and it is reliable in the sense that it is a good
estimate of the average in the corresponding universe. On the other hand,
when dispersion is large, the average is not so typical, and unless the
sample is very large, the average may be quite unreliable.
2. Another purpose of measuring dispersion is
to determine nature and cause of variation in order to control the
variation itself. In matters of health variations in body temperature,
pulse beat and blood pressure are the basic guides to diagnosis.
Prescribed treatment is designed to control their variation. In
industrial production efficient operation requires control of quality
variation the causes of which are sought through inspection is basic to
the control of causes of variation. In social sciences a special problem
requiring the measurement of variability is the measurement of
"inequality" of the distribution of income or wealth
etc.
3. Measures of dispersion enable a comparison
to be made of two or more series with regard to their variability. The
study of variation may also be looked
59
upon as a means of determining uniformity of
consistency. A high degree of variation would mean little uniformity or
consistency whereas a low degree of variation would mean great uniformity
or consistency.
4. Many powerful analytical tools in
statistics such as correlation analysis. the testing of hypothesis,
analysis of variance, the statistical quality control, regression
analysis is based on measures of variation of one kind or another. A good
measure of dispersion should possess the following properties
1. It should be simple to understand.
2. It should be easy to compute.
3. It should be rigidly defined.
4. It should be based on each and every item of the
distribution.
5. It should be amenable to further algebraic
treatment.
6. It should have sampling
stability.
7. Extreme
items should not unduly affect it.
3.4 MEAURES OF DISPERSION
There are five measures of dispersion: Range,
Inter-quartile range or Quartile Deviation, Mean deviation, Standard
Deviation, and Lorenz curve. Among them, the first four are mathematical
methods and the last one is the graphical method. These are discussed in
the ensuing paragraphs with suitable examples.
3.5 RANGE
The simplest measure of dispersion is the
range, which is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum
value of data.
Example 3.1: Find
the range for the following three sets of data:
Set 1: 05 15 15 05 15 05 15 15 15 15
Set 2: 8 7 15 11 12 5 13 11 15 9
60
Set 3: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Solution: In each of these three sets, the highest number is 15 and
the lowest number is 5. Since the range is the difference between the
maximum value and the minimum value of the data, it is 10 in each case.
But the range fails to give any idea about the dispersal or spread of the
series between the highest and the lowest value. This becomes evident
from the above data.
In a frequency distribution, range is
calculated by taking the difference between the upper limit of the
highest class and the lower limit of the lowest class. Example 3.2: Find
the range for the following frequency distribution:
Size of Item Frequency
20- 40 7
40- 60 11
60- 80 30
80-100 17
100-120 5
Total 70
Solution: Here, the upper limit of the highest class is 120 and the
lower limit of the lowest class is 20. Hence, the range is 120 - 20 =
100. Note that the range is not influenced by the frequencies.
Symbolically, the range is calculated b the formula L - S, where L is the
largest value and S is the smallest value in a distribution. The
coefficient of range is calculated by the formula: (L-S)/ (L+S). This is the
relative measure. The coefficient of the range in respect of the earlier
example having three sets of data is: 0.5.The coefficient of range is
more appropriate for purposes of comparison as will be evident from the
following example:
Example 3.3: Calculate the coefficient of range separately
for the two sets of data given below:
Set 1 8 10 20 9 15 10 13 28 Set 2 30 35
42 50 32 49 39 33
61
Solution: It can be seen that the range in both the sets of data is
the same: Set 1 28 - 8 = 20
Set 2 50 - 30 = 20
Coefficient of range in Set 1 is:
28 – 8 =
0.55
28+8
Coefficient of range in set 2 is:
50 – 30 50
+30
= 0.25
3.5.1 LIMITATIONS OF RANGE
There
are some limitations of range, which are as follows:
1. It is based only on two items and does not
cover all the items in a distribution. 2. It is subject to wide
fluctuations from sample to sample based on the same
population.
3. It fails to give any idea about the
pattern of distribution. This was evident from the data given in Examples
1 and 3.
4. Finally, in the case of open-ended
distributions, it is not possible to compute the range.
Despite these limitations of the range, it is
mainly used in situations where one wants to quickly have some idea of
the variability or' a set of data. When the sample size is very small,
the range is considered quite adequate measure of the variability. Thus,
it is widely used in quality control where a continuous check on the
variability of raw materials or finished products is needed. The range is
also a suitable measure in weather forecast. The meteorological
department uses the range by giving the maximum and the minimum temperatures.
This information is quite useful to the common man, as he can know the
extent of possible variation in the temperature on a particular
day.
62
3.6 INTERQUARTILE RANGE OR QUARTILE
DEVIATION The
interquartile range or the quartile deviation is a better measure of variation
in a distribution than the range. Here, avoiding the 25 percent of the
distribution at both the ends uses the middle 50 percent of the
distribution. In other words, the interquartile range denotes the difference
between the third quartile and the first quartile.
Symbolically, interquartile range = Q3- Ql
Many times the interquartile range is reduced
in the form of semi-interquartile range or quartile deviation as shown
below:
Semi interquartile range or Quartile deviation = (Q3 – Ql)/2
When quartile deviation is small, it means
that there is a small deviation in the central 50 percent items. In
contrast, if the quartile deviation is high, it shows that the central 50
percent items have a large variation. It may be noted that in a symmetrical
distribution, the two quartiles, that is, Q3 and QI are equidistant from the
median. Symbolically,
M-QI = Q3-M
However, this is seldom the case as most of
the business and economic data are asymmetrical. But, one can assume that
approximately 50 percent of the observations are contained in the
interquartile range. It may be noted that interquartile range or the
quartile deviation is an absolute measure of dispersion. It can be changed into
a relative measure of dispersion as follows:
Coefficient of QD
=
Q3 –Q1 Q3 +Q1
The computation of a quartile deviation is
very simple, involving the computation of upper and lower quartiles. As
the computation of the two quartiles has already been explained in the
preceding chapter, it is not attempted here.
63
3.6.1 MERITS OF QUARTILE DEVIATION
The
following merits are entertained by quartile deviation:
1. As compared to range, it is considered a
superior measure of dispersion. 2. In the case of open-ended
distribution, it is quite suitable.
3. Since it is not influenced by the extreme
values in a distribution, it is particularly suitable in highly skewed or
erratic distributions.
3.6.2 LIMITATIONS OF QUARTILE DEVIATION
1. Like the range, it fails to cover all the items in a
distribution.
2. It is not amenable to mathematical
manipulation.
3. It varies widely from sample to sample
based on the same population. 4. Since it is a positional average, it is
not considered as a measure of dispersion. It merely shows a distance on
scale and not a scatter around an average. In view of the above-mentioned
limitations, the interquartile range or the quartile deviation has a
limited practical utility.
3.7 MEAN DEVIATION
The mean deviation is also known as the
average deviation. As the name implies, it is the average of absolute
amounts by which the individual items deviate from the mean. Since the
positive deviations from the mean are equal to the negative deviations,
while computing the mean deviation, we ignore positive and negative signs.
Symbolically,
∑| x | Where MD = mean deviation, |x| = deviation of an
item MD = n
from the mean ignoring positive and negative
signs, n = the total number of observations.
64
Example 3.4:
Size of Item Frequency
2-4 20
4-6 40
6-8 30
8-10 10
Solution:
Size of Item Mid-points (m) Frequency (f) fm d from x f |d|
2-4 3 20 60 -2.6 52
4-6 5 40 200 -0.6 24
6-8 7 30 210 1.4 42
8-10 9 10 90 3.4 34
Total 100 560 152
560 = = ∑nfm
x = 5.6
100
| | 152 = = ∑nf
d
MD ( x
) = 1.52
100
3.7.1 MERITS OF MEAN DEVIATION
1. A major advantage of mean deviation is
that it is simple to understand and easy to calculate.
2. It takes into consideration each and every
item in the distribution. As a result, a change in the value of any item
will have its effect on the magnitude of mean deviation.
3. The values of extreme items have less
effect on the value of the mean deviation.
4. As deviations are taken from a central
value, it is possible to have meaningful comparisons of the formation of
different distributions.
3.7.2 LIMITATIONS OF MEAN DEVIATION
1. It is not capable of further algebraic
treatment.
65
2. At times it may fail to give accurate
results. The mean deviation gives best results when deviations are taken
from the median instead of from the mean. But in a series, which has wide
variations in the items, median is not a satisfactory measure.
3. Strictly on mathematical considerations,
the method is wrong as it ignores the algebraic signs when the deviations
are taken from the mean.
In view of these limitations, it is seldom
used in business studies. A better measure known as the standard
deviation is more frequently used.
3.8 STANDARD DEVIATION
The standard deviation is similar to the mean
deviation in that here too the deviations are measured from the mean. At
the same time, the standard deviation is preferred to the mean deviation
or the quartile deviation or the range because it has desirable
mathematical properties.
Before defining the concept of the standard
deviation, we introduce another concept viz. variance.
Example 3.5:
X X-ΞΌ (X-ΞΌ)2
20 20-18=12 4
15 15-18= -3 9
19 19-18 = 1 1
24 24-18 = 6 36
16 16-18 = -2 4
14 14-18 = -4 16
108 Total 70
Solution:
Mean = 6108 =
18
66
The second column shows the deviations from
the mean. The third or the last column shows the squared deviations, the
sum of which is 70. The arithmetic mean of the squared deviations
is:
∑ x − 2
( )
N
ΞΌ = 70/6=11.67 approx.
This mean of the squared deviations is known
as the variance. It may be noted that this variance is described by
different terms that are used interchangeably: the variance of the
distribution X; the variance of X; the variance of the distribution; and just
simply, the variance.
∑ x − 2
Symbolically, Var (X) = ( )
ΞΌ
N
x ∑ i − =2
It is also written as ( )
Ο
2 ΞΌ N
Where Ο2 (called sigma squared) is used to denote the
variance.
Although the variance is a measure of
dispersion, the unit of its measurement is (points). If a distribution
relates to income of families then the variance is (Rs)2 and
not rupees. Similarly, if another distribution pertains to marks of students,
then the unit of variance is (marks)2. To
overcome this inadequacy, the square root of variance is taken, which
yields a better measure of dispersion known as the standard deviation.
Taking our earlier example of individual observations, we take the square root
of the variance
SD or Ο = Variance = 11
= 3.42 points .67
x ∑ i − 2 ΞΌ
Symbolically, Ο = ( )
N
In applied Statistics, the standard deviation
is more frequently used than the variance. This can also be written
as:
67
Ο =
∑ i∑−2
( )
x
x i
2
N
N
We use this formula to calculate the standard
deviation from the individual observations given earlier.
Example 7.6:
X X2
20 400
15 225
19 361
24 576
16 256
14 196
108 2014
Solution:
∑ xi = ∑ = N = 6
2
2014 x 108 i
( )
108 20142
11664 2014 −
Ο =
−
6
6
Or, Ο = 66
12084 −11664
Ο = 66
420
Or, Ο = 66
Ο =
70 Or, Ο = 11.67 6
Ο = 3.42
Example 3.7:
The following distribution relating to marks obtained by
students in an examination:
Marks Number of Students
0- 10 1
10- 20 3
20- 30 6
30- 40 10
40- 50 12
50- 60 11
68
60- 70 6
70- 80 3
80- 90 2
90-100 1
Solution:
Marks Frequency (f) Mid-points Deviations (d)/10=d’ Fd’
fd'2
0- 10 1 5 -5 -5 25
10- 20 3 15 -4 -12 48
20- 30 6 25 -3 -18 54
30- 40 10 35 -2 -20 40
40- 50 12 45 -1 -12 12
50- 60 11 55 0 0 0
60- 70 6 65 1 6 6
70- 80 3 75 2 6 12
80- 90 2 85 3 6 18
90-100 1 95 4 4 16
Total 55 Total -45 231
In the case of frequency distribution where
the individual values are not known, we use the midpoints of the class
intervals. Thus, the formula used for calculating the standard deviation
is as given below:
K
∑ i
(
)
2
Ο =
i
=
−
1
fi m
ΞΌ
N
Where mi is the mid-point of the class intervals ΞΌ is the mean of the distribution, fi is
the frequency of each class; N is the total number of frequency and K is the
number of classes. This formula requires that the mean ΞΌ be calculated and that deviations (mi -
ΞΌ) be obtained for each class. To avoid this
inconvenience, the above formula can be modified as:
i ⎟⎠⎞ ⎜⎝⎛ ∑ ∑ =1 =1
K
2
K
fid fd
i
Ο = N
i
i
Where C is the class interval: fi is the
frequency of the ith class and di is the deviation of the of item from an assumed
origin; and N is the total number of observations. Applying this formula
for the table given earlier,
Ο =
2
231 10 ⎟⎠⎞ ⎜⎝⎛ − −45
55
55
69
=10 4.2 − 0.669421
=18.8
marks
When it becomes clear that the actual mean
would turn out to be in fraction, calculating deviations from the mean
would be too cumbersome. In such cases, an assumed mean is used and the
deviations from it are calculated. While mid point of any class can be taken as
an assumed mean, it is advisable to choose the mid-point of that class
that would make calculations least cumbersome. Guided by this
consideration, in Example 3.7 we have decided to choose 55 as the
mid-point and, accordingly, deviations have been taken from it. It will
be seen from the calculations that they are considerably
simplified.
3.8.1 USES OF THE STANDARD DEVIATION
The standard deviation is a frequently used
measure of dispersion. It enables us to determine as to how far individual
items in a distribution deviate from its mean. In a symmetrical,
bell-shaped curve:
(i) About 68 percent of the values in the
population fall within: + 1 standard deviation from the
mean.
(ii) About 95 percent of the values will fall
within +2 standard deviations from the mean.
(iii) About 99 percent of the values will
fall within + 3 standard deviations from the mean.
The standard deviation is an absolute measure
of dispersion as it measures variation in the same units as the original data.
As such, it cannot be a suitable measure while comparing two or more
distributions. For this purpose, we should use a relative measure of
dispersion. One such measure of relative dispersion is the coefficient of
variation, which relates the standard deviation and the mean such that the
standard deviation is expressed as a percentage of mean. Thus, the
specific unit in which the standard deviation is measured is done away
with and the new unit becomes percent.
70
Ο
Symbolically, CV (coefficient of variation) = x 100
ΞΌ
Example 3.8: In a small business firm, two typists are
employed-typist A and typist B. Typist A types out, on an average, 30
pages per day with a standard deviation of 6. Typist B, on an average,
types out 45 pages with a standard deviation of 10. Which typist shows
greater consistency in his output?
Ο A =
Solution: Coefficient
of variation for x 100
ΞΌ
6 A =
Or x 100
30
Or 20% and
Ο B =
Coefficient of variation for x 100
ΞΌ
10 B =
x 100
45
or 22.2 %
These calculations clearly indicate that
although typist B types out more pages, there is a greater variation in
his output as compared to that of typist A. We can say this in a
different way: Though typist A's daily output is much less, he is more consistent
than typist B. The usefulness of the coefficient of variation becomes
clear in comparing two groups of data having different means, as has been
the case in the above example.
3.8.2 STANDARDISED VARIABLE, STANDARD SCORES The variable Z = (x - x )/s or (x - ΞΌ)/ΞΌ, which measures the deviation from the
mean in units of the standard deviation, is called a standardised
variable. Since both the numerator and the denominator are in the same
units, a standardised variable is independent of units used. If
deviations from the mean are given in units of the standard deviation,
they are said to be expressed in standard units or standard scores.
71
Through this concept of standardised
variable, proper comparisons can be made between individual observations
belonging to two different distributions whose compositions
differ.
Example 3.9: A student has scored 68 marks in Statistics
for which the average marks were 60 and the standard deviation was 10. In
the paper on Marketing, he scored 74 marks for which the average marks
were 68 and the standard deviation was 15. In which paper, Statistics or
Marketing, was his relative standing higher?
Solution: The standardised variable Z = (x - x ) ⎟ s measures the deviation of x from the
mean x in terms of standard deviation s. For Statistics, Z = (68 - 60) ⎟ 10 = 0.8 For Marketing, Z = (74 - 68) ⎟ 15 = 0.4
Since the standard score is 0.8 in Statistics
as compared to 0.4 in Marketing, his relative standing was higher in
Statistics.
Example 3.10: Convert the set of numbers 6, 7, 5, 10 and 12
into standard scores: Solution:
X X2
6 36
7 49
5 25
10 100
12 144
∑ X = 40 2
∑X = 354
x = ∑x ⎟ N = 40 ⎟ 5 = 8
∑x ∑−2
Ο =
2
or, Ο =
(
)
X
N
( )
40 3542
−
5
5
N
354 − 320 = 2.61 approx. =5
72
x x = -0.77 (Standard score)
6 − 8 = −Ο
Z =2.61
Applying this formula to other values:
7 − 8 = -0.38
(i) 2.61
5 − 8 = -1.15
(ii) 2.61
10 − 8 = 0.77
(iii) 2.61
12 − 8 = 1.53
(iv) 2.61
Thus the standard scores for 6,7,5,10 and 12
are -0.77, -0.38, -1.15, 0.77 and 1.53, respectively.
3.9 LORENZ CURVE
This measure of dispersion is graphical. It
is known as the Lorenz curve named after Dr. Max Lorenz. It is generally
used to show the extent of concentration of income and wealth. The steps
involved in plotting the Lorenz curve are:
1. Convert a frequency distribution into a
cumulative frequency table. 2. Calculate percentage for each item taking
the total equal to 100. 3. Choose a suitable scale and plot the
cumulative percentages of the persons and
income. Use the horizontal axis of X to
depict percentages of persons and the vertical axis of Y to depict
percent ages of income.
4. Show the line of equal distribution, which
will join 0 of X-axis with 100 of Y axis.
5. The curve obtained in (3) above can now be
compared with the straight line of equal distribution obtained in (4)
above. If the Lorenz curve is close to the line of equal distribution,
then it implies that the dispersion is much less. If, on the
73
contrary, the Lorenz curve is farther away
from the line of equal distribution, it implies that the dispersion is
considerable.
The Lorenz curve is a simple graphical device
to show the disparities of distribution in any phenomenon. It is, used in
business and economics to represent inequalities in income, wealth,
production, savings, and so on.
Figure 3.1 shows two Lorenz curves by way of
illustration. The straight line AB is a line of equal distribution,
whereas AEB shows complete inequality. Curve ACB and curve ADB are the
Lorenz curves.
sry ye mila nahi
Figure 3.1: Lorenz Curve
As curve ACB is nearer to the line of equal
distribution, it has more equitable distribution of income than curve
ADB. Assuming that these two curves are for the same company, this may be
interpreted in a different manner. Prior to taxation, the curve ADB
showed greater inequality in the income of its employees. After the
taxation, the company’s data resulted into ACB curve, which is closer to the
line of equal distribution. In other words, as a result of taxation, the
inequality has reduced.
3.10 SKEWNESS: MEANING AND DEFINITIONS
In the above paragraphs, we have discussed
frequency distributions in detail. It may be repeated here that frequency
distributions differ in three ways: Average value, Variability or
dispersion, and Shape. Since the first two, that is, average value and
74
variability or dispersion have already been
discussed in previous chapters, here our main spotlight will be on the
shape of frequency distribution. Generally, there are two comparable
characteristics called skewness and kurtosis that help us to understand a
distribution. Two distributions may have the same mean and standard deviation
but may differ widely in their overall appearance as can be seen from the
following:
In both these distributions the value of
mean and standard deviation is the same
( X = 15, Ο = 5).
But it does not imply
that the distributions are alike in nature.
The distribution on the left-hand side is
a symmetrical one whereas the distribution on
the right-hand side is symmetrical or skewed. Measures of skewness help
us to distinguish between different types of distributions.
Some important definitions of skewness are as follows:
1. "When a series is not symmetrical it
is said to be asymmetrical or skewed." -Croxton & Cowden.
2. "Skewness refers to the asymmetry or lack of symmetry in the shape of
a frequency distribution." -Morris Hamburg. 3. "Measures
of skewness tell us the direction and the extent of skewness. In
symmetrical distribution the mean, median and mode are identical. The
more the mean moves away from the mode, the larger the asymmetry or
skewness." -Simpson & Kalka 4. "A distribution is
said to be 'skewed' when the mean and the median fall at different points
in the distribution, and the balance (or centre of gravity) is shifted to
one side or the other-to left or right." -Garrett
75
The above definitions show that the term
'skewness' refers to lack of symmetry" i.e., when a distribution is
not symmetrical (or is asymmetrical) it is called a skewed
distribution.
The concept of skewness will be clear from
the following three diagrams showing a symmetrical distribution. a
positively skewed distribution and a negatively skewed
distribution.
1. Symmetrical Distribution. It is clear from the diagram (a) that in a sym metrical distribution the values of mean, median and mode coincide. The spread of the frequencies is the same on
both sides of the centre point of the curve.
2. Asymmetrical Distribution. A
distribution, which is not symmetrical, is
called a skewed distribution and such a
distribution could either be positively
skewed or negatively skewed as would be
clear from the diagrams (b) and (c).
3. Positively Skewed Distribution. In the
positively skewed distribution the value of
the mean is maximum and that of mode
least-the median lies in between the two as is clear from the diagram
(b).
4. Negatively Skewed Distribution. The following is the shape of
negatively skewed distribution. In a negatively skewed distribution the
value of mode is maximum and that of mean least-the median lies in
between the two. In the positively skewed distribution the frequencies
are spread out over a greater
76
range of values on the high-value end of the
curve (the right-hand side) than they are on the low-value end. In the
negatively skewed distribution the position is reversed, i.e. the excess
tail is on the left-hand side. It should be noted that in moderately
symmetrical distributions the interval between the mean and the median is
approximately one-third of the interval between the mean and the mode. It
is this relationship, which provides a means of measuring the degree of
skewness.
3.11 TESTS OF SKEWNESS
In order to ascertain whether a distribution
is skewed or not the following tests may be applied. Skewness is present
if:
1. The
values of mean, median and mode do not coincide.
2. When the data are plotted on a graph they do not give the
normal bell shaped form i.e. when cut along a vertical line through the centre
the two halves are not equal.
3. The sum of the positive deviations from the median is not
equal to the sum of the negative deviations.
4. Quartiles
are not equidistant from the median.
5. Frequencies are not equally distributed at points of
equal deviation from the mode.
On the contrary, when skewness is absent,
i.e. in case of a symmetrical distribution, the following conditions are
satisfied:
1. The
values of mean, median and mode coincide.
2. Data when plotted on a graph give the normal bell-shaped
form. 3. Sum of the positive deviations from the median is equal
to the sum of the negative deviations.
77
4. Quartiles
are equidistant from the median.
5. Frequencies are equally distributed at points of equal
deviations from the mode.
3.12 MEASURES OF SKEWNESS
There are four measures of skewness, each
divided into absolute and relative measures. The relative measure is
known as the coefficient of skewness and is more frequently used than the
absolute measure of skewness. Further, when a comparison between two or
more distributions is involved, it is the relative measure of skewness,
which is used. The measures of skewness are: (i) Karl Pearson's measure,
(ii) Bowley’s measure, (iii) Kelly’s measure, and (iv) Moment’s measure.
These measures are discussed briefly below:
3.12.1 KARL PEARON’S MEASURE
The formula for measuring skewness as given
by Karl Pearson is as follows: Skewness = Mean - Mode
Coefficient of skewness =
Mean – Mode
Standard Deviation
In case the mode is indeterminate, the coefficient of
skewness is:
Skp = Skp =
Mean - (3 Median - 2 Mean) Standard deviation
3(Mean - Median)
Standard deviation
Now this formula
is equal to the earlier one.
3(Mean - Median)
Standard deviation
Or 3 Mean - 3 Median = Mean - Mode Or
Mode = Mean - 3 Mean + 3 Median Or Mode = 3 Median - 2 Mean
Mean - Mode
Standard deviation
The direction of skewness is determined by
ascertaining whether the mean is greater than the mode or less than the
mode. If it is greater than the mode, then skewness is
78
positive. But when the mean is less than the
mode, it is negative. The difference between the mean and mode indicates
the extent of departure from symmetry. It is measured in standard
deviation units, which provide a measure independent of the unit of measurement.
It may be recalled that this observation was made in the preceding
chapter while discussing standard deviation. The value of coefficient of
skewness is zero, when the distribution is symmetrical. Normally, this
coefficient of skewness lies between +1. If the mean is greater
than the mode, then the coefficient of skewness will be positive,
otherwise negative.
Example 3.11: Given the following data, calculate the Karl
Pearson's coefficient of skewness: ∑x = 452 ∑x2=
24270 Mode = 43.7 and N = 10 Solution:
Pearson's coefficient of skewness is:
SkP =
Mean - Mode
Standard deviation
452 = = ∑NX
Mean ( x )= 45.2
10
⎜⎜⎝⎛ = ∑ − ∑Nx
SD ( )2 2⎟⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎜⎝⎛ = ∑ − ∑Nx
x Ο ( )2 2⎟⎟⎠⎞
N
2
x Ο N
24270 ⎟⎠⎞ ⎜⎝⎛ Ο = − 2427 (45.2) 19.59 2
(
)
10
452 10
= − =
Applying the values of mean, mode and standard deviation
in the above formula,
Skp =
=0.08
45.2 – 43.7
19.59
This shows that there is a positive skewness
though the extent of skewness is marginal.
Example 3.12: From the following data, calculate the
measure of skewness using the mean, median and standard
deviation:
X 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50-60 60 -
70 70 - 80 f 18 30 40 55 38 20 16
79
Solution:
x MVx dx f fdx fdX2 cf
10 - 20 15 -3 18 -54 162 18
20 - 30 25 -2 30 -60 120 48
30 - 40 35 -1 40 -40 40 88
40-50 45=a 0 55 0 0 143
50 - 60 55 1 38 38 38 181
60 - 70 65 2 20 40 80 201
70 - 80 75 3 16 48 144 217
Total 217 -28 584
a = Assumed mean = 45, cf = Cumulative frequency, dx
= Deviation from assumed mean, and i = 10
x = a + ⋅ ∑
fdx N
i
28 = 45 − ⋅ =
217
10 43.71 l l − − +
Median= l1 ( )
2 1 m
c
f
1
Where m = (N + 1)/2th item
= (217 + 1)/2 = 109th item
50 40 40 − − = −
Median (109 88) 55
10 = 40 + ⋅
55
= 43.82
21
∑
584 102 2 2⎟ ⋅ −∑∑
⎜⎜⎝⎛
fdx x fd
⎞ ⎜⎝⎛ − ⋅ =
− ⎟⎟⎠⎞ 28
SD = 10
∑
f
f
217
217
⎠
= 2.69 - 0.016
⋅10 = 16.4 Skewness = 3 (Mean - Median) = 3 (43.71
- 43.82) = 3 x -0.011
80